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Guided Reading Activity 16-4 Spice Trade in Southeast Asia

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Celebrated international commerce

The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove and turmeric were known and used in antiquity and traded in the Eastern World.[ane] These spices establish their way into the Near East before the first of the Christian era, with fantastic tales hiding their true sources.[i]

The maritime aspect of the trade was dominated by the Austronesian peoples in Southeast Asia, namely the aboriginal Indonesian sailors which established routes from Southeast Asia (and subsequently Red china) to Sri Lanka and India by 1500 BC.[2] These goods were then transported by land towards the Mediterranean and the Greco-Roman world via the incense route and the Roman–Bharat routes by Indian and Persian traders.[iii] The Austronesian maritime trade lanes later expanded into the Middle Due east and eastern Africa past the 1st millennium AD, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar.

Within specific regions, the Kingdom of Axum (5th century BC–AD 11th century) had pioneered the Red Sea road before the 1st century AD. During the outset millennium AD, Ethiopians became the maritime trading power of the Red Ocean. Past this period, trade routes existed from Sri Lanka (the Roman Taprobane) and Republic of india, which had caused maritime technology from early Austronesian contact. By mid-seventh century AD, after the rise of Islam, Arab traders started plying these maritime routes and dominated the western Indian Bounding main maritime routes.

Arab traders eventually took over conveying goods via the Levant and Venetian merchants to Europe until the rise of the Seljuk Turks in 1090. Later the Ottoman Turks held the road again by 1453 respectively. Overland routes helped the spice merchandise initially, but maritime trade routes led to tremendous growth in commercial activities to Europe.

The merchandise was changed by the Crusades and later the European Age of Discovery,[4] during which the spice trade, peculiarly in blackness pepper, became an influential activity for European traders.[v] From the 11th to the 15th centuries, the Italian maritime republics of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Europe and Asia.[6] The Greatcoat Road from Europe to the Indian Body of water via the Cape of Practiced Hope was pioneered past the Portuguese explorer navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498, resulting in new maritime routes for trade.[7]

This trade, which drove world trade from the end of the Heart Ages well into the Renaissance,[5] ushered in an age of European domination in the East.[7] Channels such as the Bay of Bengal served as bridges for cultural and commercial exchanges between diverse cultures[iv] every bit nations struggled to proceeds control of the trade forth the many spice routes.[ane] In 1571 the Spanish opened the first trans-Pacific route betwixt its territories of the Philippines and Mexico, served by the Manila Galleon. This trade route lasted until 1815. The Portuguese trade routes were mainly restricted and limited by the apply of ancient routes, ports, and nations that were difficult to dominate. The Dutch were after able to bypass many of these problems past pioneering a direct ocean route from the Greatcoat of Adept Hope to the Sunda Strait in Republic of indonesia.

Origins [edit]

People from the Neolithic flow traded in spices, obsidian, sea shells, precious stones and other high-value materials as early every bit the 10th millennium BC. The first to mention the trade in historical periods are the Egyptians. In the tertiary millennium BC, they traded with the Land of Punt, which is believed to have been situated in an area encompassing northern Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan.[eight] [nine]

The spice trade was associated with overland routes early, but maritime routes proved to exist the factor which helped the trade grow.[ane] The first true maritime merchandise network in the Indian Bounding main was past the Austronesian peoples of Isle Southeast Asia,[x] who congenital the first ocean-going ships.[11] They established trade routes with Southern Bharat and Sri Lanka every bit early as 1500 BC, ushering an exchange of fabric civilization (similar catamarans, outrigger boats, lashed-lug and sewn-plank boats, and paan) and cultigens (like coconuts, sandalwood, bananas, and sugarcane), every bit well every bit connecting the cloth cultures of India and Mainland china. Indonesians in particular were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia) with Eastward Africa using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This merchandise network expanded to reach equally far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the offset half of the offset millennium Advert. It continued into historic times, later on becoming the Maritime Silk Route.[x] [12] [thirteen] [fourteen] [15]

In the first millennium BC the Arabs, Phoenicians, and Indians were also engaged in sea and land trade in luxury goods such every bit spices, gold, precious stones, leather of exotic animals, ebony and pearls. The sea trade was in the Crimson Sea and the Indian Body of water. The sea road in the Red Ocean was from Bab-el-Mandeb to Berenike, from there past land to the Nile, and and then by boats to Alexandria. Luxury goods including Indian spices, ebony, silk and fine textiles were traded forth the overland incense route.[1]

In the 2d one-half of the first millennium BC the Arab tribes of South and W Arabia took control over the country trade of spices from South Arabia to the Mediterranean Sea. These tribes were the M'own, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Saba and Himyarite. In the north the Nabateans took control of the trade route that crossed the Negev from Petra to Gaza. The trade enriched these tribes. South Arabia was called Eudaemon Arabia (the elated Arabia) by the Greeks and was on the calendar of conquests of Alexander of Republic of macedonia before he died. The Indians and the Arabs had control over the body of water merchandise with India. In the tardily second century BC, the Greeks from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Arab republic of egypt learned from the Indians how to sheet directly from Aden to the westward coast of India using the monsoon winds (as did Hippalus) and took control of the sea trade via Red Bounding main ports.[16]

Spices are discussed in biblical narratives, and there is literary evidence for their use in ancient Greek and Roman society. There is a record from Tamil texts of Greeks purchasing large sacks of blackness pepper from India, and many recipes in the 1st-century Roman cookbook Apicius make utilise of the spice. The trade in spices lessened after the fall of the Roman Empire, but demand for ginger, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg revived the trade in later on centuries.[17]

Arab trade and medieval Europe [edit]

Trade route in the Red Sea linking Italy to due south-w India

Rome played a part in the spice trade during the 5th century, but this role, dissimilar the Arabian 1, did non last through the Eye Ages.[ane] The rising of Islam brought a significant change to the trade as Radhanite Jewish and Arab merchants, specially from Arab republic of egypt, somewhen took over conveying goods via the Levant to Europe. At times, Jews enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the spice trade in large parts of Western Europe.[18]

The spice trade had brought great riches to the Abbasid Caliphate and inspired famous legends such equally that of Sinbad the Sailor. These early sailors and merchants would often set up sail from the port metropolis of Basra and, after many ports of telephone call, would return to sell their goods, including spices, in Baghdad. The fame of many spices such equally nutmeg and cinnamon are attributed to these early spice merchants.[19] [ failed verification ]

The Indian commercial connexion with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the seventh and 8th centuries.[twenty] Arab traders — mainly descendants of sailors from Yemen and Oman — dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and linking to the clandestine "spice islands" (Maluku Islands and Banda Islands). The islands of Molucca too find mention in several records: a Javanese chronicle (1365) mentions the Moluccas and Maloko,[21] and navigational works of the 14th and 15th centuries contain the first unequivocal Arab reference to Moluccas.[21] Sulaima al-Mahr writes: "E of Timor [where sandalwood is plant] are the islands of Bandam and they are the islands where nutmeg and mace are found. The islands of cloves are called Maluku ....."[21]

Moluccan products were shipped to trading emporiums in India, passing through ports like Kozhikode in Kerala and through Sri Lanka.[22] From there they were shipped w across the ports of Arabia to the Almost East, to Ormus in the Persian Gulf and Jeddah in the Carmine Sea and sometimes to East Africa, where they were used for many purposes, including burial rites.[22] The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta, Aden and Siraf as entry ports to trade with Republic of india and China.[23] Merchants arriving from India in the port metropolis of Aden paid tribute in form of musk, camphor, ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad, the sultan of Yemen.[23]

Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).[22] Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants depart for distant countries."[24]

From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. From the 8th until the 15th century, maritime republics (Republic of Venice, Republic of Pisa, Democracy of Genoa, Duchy of Amalfi, Duchy of Gaeta, Republic of Ancona and Republic of Ragusa[25]) held a monopoly on European trade with the Middle E. The silk and spice trade, involving spices, incense, herbs, drugs and opium, fabricated these Mediterranean city-states extremely wealthy. Spices were amid the most expensive and in-demand products of the Middle Ages, used in medicine also every bit in the kitchen. They were all imported from Asia and Africa. Venetian and other navigators of maritime republics then distributed the goods through Europe.

The Ottoman Empire, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, barred Europeans from important combined land-sea routes.[26]

Age of Discovery: a new route and a New Earth [edit]

The Commonwealth of Venice had get a formidable power and a key player in the Eastern spice trade.[27] Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build up maritime capability.[ane] Until the mid-15th century, trade with the E was achieved through the Silk Road, with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa acting as middlemen.

In 1453, nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire took control of the sole spice trade road that existed at the time after the fall of Constantinople, and were in a favorable position to charge hefty taxes on merchandise leap for the west. The Western Europeans,[ which? ] not wanting to be dependent on an expansionist, not-Christian ability for the lucrative commerce with the East, set up out to find an alternative route by ocean around Africa.[ citation needed ]

The beginning land to attempt to circumnavigate Africa was Portugal, which had, since the early 15th century, begun to explore northern Africa under Henry the Navigator. Emboldened by these early successes and eyeing a lucrative monopoly on a possible sea route to the Indies, the Portuguese beginning rounded the Cape of Skilful Hope in 1488 on an expedition led by Bartolomeu Dias.[28] Only nine years later in 1497, on the orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama continued beyond to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi and sailed beyond the Indian Bounding main to Calicut, on the Malabar Coast in Kerala[7] in South India — the capital of the local Zamorin rulers. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was the earliest European seaborne empire to grow from the spice trade.[7]

In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca for Portugal, then the center of Asian trade. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent several diplomatic and exploratory missions, including to the Moluccas. Learning the secret location of the Spice Islands, mainly the Banda Islands, then the world source of nutmeg, he sent an expedition led by António de Abreu to Banda, where they were the outset Europeans to arrive, in early 1512.[29] Abreu's expedition reached Buru, Ambon and Seram Islands, and so Banda.

From 1507 to 1515 Albuquerque tried to completely block Arab and other traditional routes that stretched from the shores of Western Pacific to the Mediterranean Body of water, through the conquest of strategic bases in the Persian Gulf and at the entry of the Cherry Ocean.

By the early 16th century the Portuguese had complete command of the African sea road, which extended through a long network of routes that linked iii oceans, from the Moluccas (the Spice Islands) in the Pacific Ocean limits, through Malacca, Kerala and Sri Lanka, to Lisbon in Portugal.

The Crown of Castile had organized the expedition of Christopher Columbus to compete with Portugal for the spice merchandise with Asia, but when Columbus landed on the isle of Hispaniola (in what is now Republic of haiti) instead of in the Indies, the search for a route to Asia was postponed until a few years later. Afterwards Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, the Spanish Crown prepared a westward voyage by Ferdinand Magellan in gild to reach Asia from Spain beyond the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On October 21, 1520, his trek crossed the Strait of Magellan in the southern tip of South America, opening the Pacific to European exploration. On March 16, 1521, the ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice Islands, ultimately resulting decades subsequently in the Manila Galleon trade, the first due west spice trade route to Asia. After Magellan's death in the Philippines, navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano took command of the trek and collection it across the Indian Ocean and dorsum to Spain, where they arrived in 1522 aboard the last remaining ship, the Victoria. For the next 2-and-a-half centuries, Espana controlled a vast trade network that linked three continents: Asia, the Americas and Europe. A global spice road had been created: from Manila in the Philippines (Asia) to Seville in Spain (Europe), via Acapulco in Mexico (North America).

Cultural improvidence [edit]

One of the near important technological exchanges of the spice merchandise network was the early introduction of maritime technologies to Republic of india, the Middle Eastward, East Africa, and China by the Austronesian peoples. These technologies include the plank-sewn hulls, catamarans, outrigger boats, and maybe the lateen canvass. This is still axiomatic in Sri Lankan and Due south Indian languages. For example, Tamil paṭavu, Telugu paḍava, and Kannada paḍahu, all pregnant "ship", are all derived from Proto-Hesperonesian *padaw, "sailboat", with Austronesian cognates like Javanese perahu, Kadazan padau, Maranao padaw, Cebuano paráw, Samoan folau, Hawaiian halau, and Māori wharau.[thirteen] [12] [14]

Austronesians besides introduced many Austronesian cultigens to southern India, Sri Lanka, and eastern Africa that figured prominently in the spice trade.[30] They include bananas,[31] Pacific domesticated coconuts,[32] [33] Dioscorea yams,[34] wetland rice,[31] sandalwood,[35] giant taro,[36] Polynesian arrowroot,[37] ginger,[38] lengkuas,[30] tailed pepper,[39] betel,[40] areca nut,[xl] and sugarcane.[41] [42]

Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons, entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economies by estate management, craftsmanship, and promotion of trading activities.[43] Buddhism, in item, traveled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, fine art, and literacy.[44] Islam spread throughout the East, reaching maritime Southeast Asia in the 10th century; Muslim merchants played a crucial part in the trade.[45] Christian missionaries, such as Saint Francis Xavier, were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the East.[45] Christianity competed with Islam to go the dominant religion of the Moluccas.[45] However, the natives of the Spice Islands accommodated to aspects of both religions easily.[46]

The Portuguese colonial settlements saw traders such every bit the Gujarati banias, S Indian Chettis, Syrian Christians, Chinese from Fujian province, and Arabs from Aden involved in the spice trade.[47] Epics, languages, and cultural customs were borrowed by Southeast Asia from India, and after China.[4] Noesis of Portuguese language became essential for merchants involved in the trade.[48] The colonial pepper trade drastically changed the feel of modernity in Europe, and in Kerala and information technology brought, along with colonialism, early capitalism to India's Malabar Coast, irresolute cultures of piece of work and caste.[49]

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, notably nowadays mean solar day Malaysia and Indonesia, where spice mixtures and black pepper became popular.[fifty] Conversely, Southeast Asian cuisine and crops was also introduced to Bharat and Sri Lanka, where rice cakes and coconut milk-based dishes are nonetheless dominant.[thirty] [32] [31] [38] [51]

European people intermarried with Indian and popularized valuable culinary skills, such as baking, in India.[52] Indian nutrient, adjusted to the European palate, became visible in England by 1811 equally exclusive establishments began catering to the tastes of both the curious and those returning from Republic of india.[53] Opium was a role of the spice trade, and some people involved in the spice merchandise were driven past opium addiction.[54] [55]

Come across too [edit]

  • Silk Route
  • Eastward Indies
  • Foodlogo2.svg Food portal

Bibliography [edit]

  • Collingham, Lizzie (December 2005). Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195172416.
  • Corn, Charles; Debbie Glasserman (March 1999). The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade. Kodansha America. ISBN978-1568362496.
  • Donkin, Robin A. (August 2003). Between East and Due west: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans. Diane Publishing Company. ISBN978-0871692481.
  • Fage, John Donnelly; et al. (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa . Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0521215923.
  • Rawlinson, Hugh George (2001). Intercourse Between Bharat and the Western Earth: From the Primeval Times of the Autumn of Rome. Asian Educational Services. ISBN978-8120615496.
  • Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Arab republic of egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0192804587.
  • Kalidasan, Vinod Kottayil (2015). "Routes of Pepper: Colonial Discourses around Spice Merchandise in Malabar" in Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition, Shiju Sam Varughese and Sathese Chandra Bose (Eds). Orient Blackswan, New Delhi. ISBN978-81-250-5722-2.

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f thou "Spice Trade". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
  2. ^ Dick-Read, Robert (July 2006). "Indonesia and Africa: questioning the origins of some of Africa's nigh famous icons". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. 2 (1): 23–45. doi:x.4102/td.v2i1.307.
  3. ^ Fage 1975: 164
  4. ^ a b c Donkin 2003
  5. ^ a b Corn & Glasserman 1999: Prologue
  6. ^ "Brainy IAS - Online & Offline Classes". Brainy IAS. 2018-03-03. Retrieved 2021-09-22 .
  7. ^ a b c d Gama, Vasco da. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia Academy Press.
  8. ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, torso of the tree, Volume 2, (Algora Publishing: 2004), p. 258.
  9. ^ Rawlinson 2001: 11-12
  10. ^ a b c Manguin, Pierre-Yves (2016). "Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships". In Campbell, Gwyn (ed.). Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Sea Globe. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 51–76. ISBN9783319338224.
  11. ^ Meacham, Steve (eleven December 2008). "Austronesians were kickoff to sail the seas". The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 28 April 2019.
  12. ^ a b Doran, Edwin, Jr. (1974). "Outrigger Ages". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 83 (2): 130–140.
  13. ^ a b Mahdi, Waruno (1999). "The Dispersal of Austronesian gunkhole forms in the Indian Ocean". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.). Archeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts. Ane Earth Archaeology. Vol. 34. Routledge. pp. 144–179. ISBN0415100542. [ dead link ]
  14. ^ a b Doran, Edwin B. (1981). Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN9780890961070.
  15. ^ Blench, Roger (2004). "Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 24 (The Taipei Papers (Volume ii)): 31–50.
  16. ^ Shaw 2003: 426
  17. ^ The Medieval Spice Trade and the Diffusion of the Republic of chile Gastronomica Spring 2007 Vol. seven Issue 2
  18. ^ Rabinowitz, Louis (1948). Jewish Merchant Adventurers: A Study of the Radanites. London: Edward Goldston. pp. 150–212.
  19. ^ "The 3rd Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman – The Arabian Nights – The Chiliad and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton translator". Classiclit.about.com. 2009-11-02. Retrieved 2011-09-16 .
  20. ^ Donkin 2003: 59
  21. ^ a b c Donkin 2003: 88
  22. ^ a b c Donkin 2003: 92
  23. ^ a b Donkin 2003: 91–92
  24. ^ Donkin 2003: 65
  25. ^ Armando Lodolini, Le repubbliche del mare, Roma, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967.
  26. ^ "International Schoolhouse History - MYP History". www.internationalschoolhistory.net . Retrieved 2020-05-25 .
  27. ^ Pollmer, Priv.Doz. Dr. Udo. "The spice trade and its importance for European expansion". Migration and Diffusion . Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  28. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Bartolomeu Dias Retrieved November 29, 2007
  29. ^ Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How I Man'due south Backbone Inverse the Course of History, Milton, Giles (1999), pp. v–seven
  30. ^ a b c Hoogervorst, Tom (2013). "If Only Plants Could talk...: Reconstructing Pre-Modernistic Biological Translocations in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). In Chandra, Satish; Prabha Ray, Himanshu (eds.). The Sea, Identity and History: From the Bay of Bengal to the South Mainland china Bounding main. Manohar. pp. 67–92. ISBN9788173049866.
  31. ^ a b c Lockard, Craig A. (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. Cengage Learning. pp. 123–125. ISBN9781439085202.
  32. ^ a b
  33. ^ Crowther, Alison; Lucas, Leilani; Helm, Richard; Horton, Mark; Shipton, Ceri; Wright, Henry T.; Walshaw, Sarah; Pawlowicz, Matthew; Radimilahy, Chantal; Douka, Katerina; Picornell-Gelabert, Llorenç; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Boivin, Nicole 50. (14 June 2016). "Ancient crops provide first archaeological signature of the due west Austronesian expansion". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences. 113 (24): 6635–6640. doi:ten.1073/pnas.1522714113. PMC4914162. PMID 27247383.
  34. ^ Barker, Graeme; Chase, Chris; Barton, Huw; Gosden, Chris; Jones, Sam; Lloyd-Smith, Lindsay; Farr, Lucy; Nyirí, Borbala; O'Donnell, Shawn (August 2017). "The 'cultured rainforests' of Borneo" (PDF). Fourth International. 448: 44–61. Bibcode:2017QuInt.448...44B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2016.08.018.
  35. ^ Fox, James J. (2006). Within Austronesian Houses: Perspectives on Domestic Designs for Living. ANU E Press. p. 21. ISBN9781920942847.
  36. ^ Matthews, Peter J. (1995). "Aroids and the Austronesians". Torrid zone. four (2/3): 105–126. doi:ten.3759/tropics.4.105.
  37. ^ Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (1994). "Traditional Arrowroot Production and Utilization in the Marshall Islands". Journal of Ethnobiology. fourteen (ii): 211–234.
  38. ^ a b Viestad A (2007). Where Flavor Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Forth the Indian Ocean Spice Road. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. p. 89. ISBN9780811849654.
  39. ^ Ravindran, P.Due north. (2017). The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices. CABI. ISBN9781780643151.
  40. ^ a b Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2007–2008). "The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South asia, Southeast Asia and across". eJournal of Indian Medicine. 1: 87–140.
  41. ^ Daniels, John; Daniels, Christian (April 1993). "Sugarcane in Prehistory". Archaeology in Oceania. 28 (ane): 1–seven. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1993.tb00309.x.
  42. ^ Paterson, Andrew H.; Moore, Paul H.; Tom Fifty., Tew (2012). "The Genetic pool of Saccharum Species and Their Improvement". In Paterson, Andrew H. (ed.). Genomics of the Saccharinae. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 43–72. ISBN9781441959478.
  43. ^ Donkin 2003: 67
  44. ^ Donkin 2003: 69
  45. ^ a b c Corn & Glasserman 1999
  46. ^ Corn & Glasserman 1999: 105
  47. ^ Collingham 56: 2006
  48. ^ Corn & Glasserman 1999: 203
  49. ^ Vinod Kottayil Kalidasan, 'The Routes of Pepper: Colonial Discourses around the Spice Merchandise in Malabar', Kerala Modernity: Ideasa, Spaces and Practices in Transition, Ed. Shiju Sam Varughese and Satheese Chandra Bose, New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2015. For the link: "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-04-thirteen. Retrieved 2015-04-13 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  50. ^ Collingham 245: 2006
  51. ^ Dalby A (2002). Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Academy of California Press. ISBN9780520236745.
  52. ^ Collingham 61: 2006
  53. ^ Collingham 129: 2006
  54. ^ "Opium Throughout History | The Opium Kings | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org . Retrieved 2018-04-thirteen .
  55. ^ Burger, G. (2003), The Forgotten Gold? The Importance of the Dutch opium trade in the Seventeenth Century

Farther reading [edit]

  • Borschberg, Peter (2017), 'The Value of Admiral Matelieff's Writings for Studying the History of Southeast Asia, c. 1600–1620,'. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 48(3): 414–435. doi:x.1017/S002246341700056X
  • Nabhan, Gary Paul: Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey. [History of Spice Trade] University of California Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-520-26720-6 [Impress]; ISBN 978-0-520-95695-7 [eBook]
  • Pavo López, Marcos: Spices in maps. Fifth centenary of the beginning circumnavigation of the world. [History of the spice merchandise through old maps] east-Perimetron, vol 15, no.ii (2020)

External links [edit]

Media related to Spice trade at Wikimedia Commons

  • The Spice Trade and the Age of Exploration
  • Trade betwixt the Romans and the Empires of Asia. Section of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
  • The Spice Trade and its importance for European Expansion, Doz. Udo Pollmer

moynihanbetimesely.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_trade

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